Outline
1. Introduction.
2. History about Albert Bandura.
3. Social cognitive theory (bandura).
4. Observational learning.
5. Cognitive behavior approaches and self-regulation.
6. Criticism of social cognitive approach.
7. References
Introduction
In the early 1960’s, when many learning and instruction theories were being developed, Albert Bandura and his researchers recognized that many overlooked an important aspect of learning, the observation of others, From this analysis began the social-cognitive theory.
Albert Bandura is the main architect of social cognitive theory.
Social cognitive theory (SCT): Bandura’s social cognitive theory is one of the most highly influential and widely celebrated theories in the field of social psychology used in psychology, education, and communication, holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, skills, strategies, beliefs ,attitudes and outside media influences this theory was advanced by Albert Bandura.
Individuals also learn about the usefulness and appropriateness of behaviors by observing models and the consequences of modeled behaviors and they act in accordance with their beliefs and they remember the sequence of events and use this information to guide subsequent behaviors.
Albert Bandura is known as the father of cognitive theory.
Albert Bandura, (born December 4, 1925), Albert Bandura was born in Canada, he lived in American , Both his parent originally come from Poland and Ukraine, and both emigrated to Canada. He has five brothers of which Albert Bandura is the youngest.
He is a psychologist, and honorary professor in social psychology at Stanford University.
Albert Bandura next continued his study at the University of Iowa in the United States where he obtained both his master’s degree in psychology 1951 and his Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1952.
After his graduation, Albert Bandura was offered to work as a professor at Stanford University. He accepted the offer and became chairman of the psychology department in 1976.
Canadian-born American psychologist and originator of social cognitive theory who is probably best known for his modeling study on aggression, referred to as the “Bobo doll” experiment, whi demonstrated that children can learn behaviors through the observation of adults.
Social cognitive theory(bandura):
Social cognitive theory is a learning theory based on the idea that people learn by observing others.
He says that when students learn, they can cognitively represent or transform their experiences. Recall that in operant conditioning, connections occur only between environmental experiences and behavior.
These learned behaviors can be central to one's personality. While social psychologists agree that the environment one grows up in contributes to behavior, the individual person (and therefore cognition) is just as important. People learn by observing others, with the environment, behavior, and cognition acting as primary factors that influence development in a reciprocal triadic relationship. Each behavior witnessed can change a person's way of thinking (cognition). Similarly, the environment one is raised in may influence later behaviors.
For example, a caregiver's mindset (also cognition) determines the environment in which their children are raised.
The core concepts of this theory are explained by Bandura through a schematization of triadic reciprocal causation, The schema shows how the reproduction of an observed behavior is influenced by the interaction of the following three determinants, or Bandura developed a reciprocal determinism model that consists of three main factors:
1-Person/cognitive.
2- Behavior.
3- Environment.
Reciprocal determinism model
1. Personal:
Whether the individual has high or low self-efficacy toward the behavior (i.e. get the learner to believe in his or her personal abilities to correctly complete a behavior).
Person of reciprocal causation reflects the interaction between thought, affect and action. Expectations, beliefs, self- perceptions, goals and intentions give shape and direction to behavior. What people think, believe, and feel, affects how they behave.
self-efficacy: the belief that one can master a situation and produce positive outcomes. Bandura says that self-efficacy has a powerful influence over behavior.
Self-efficacy can be developed or increased by:
- Mastery experience: which is a process that helps an individual achieve simple tasks that lead to more complex objectives.
- Social modeling: provides an identifiable model that shows the processes that accomplish a behavior.
- Improving physical and emotional states: refers to ensuring a person is rested and relaxed prior to attempting a new behavior. The less relaxed, the less patient, the more likely they won't attain the goal behavior.
- Verbal persuasion: is providing encouragement for a person to complete a task or achieve a certain behavior.
For example a student who has low self-efficacy might not even try to study for a test because he doesn't believe it will do him any good.
2. Behavioral:
The response an individual receives after they perform a behavior (i.e. Provide chances for the learner to experience successful learning as a result of performing the behavior correctly).
Behavior affect by personal culture if here culture accepted to do this behavior or not. And affect by here or his physical abilities if he/she have physically fit to do this behavior or not.
3.Environmental:
Aspects of the environment or setting that influence the individual's ability to successfully complete a behavior (i.e. Make environmental conditions conducive for improved self-efficacy by providing appropriate support and materials).
Environmental of reciprocal causation is concerned with the interactive relation between personal characteristics and environmental influences. Human expectations, beliefs, emotional bents and cognitive competencies are developed and modified by social influences that convey information and activate emotional reactions through modeling, instruction and social persuasion.
These factors can interact to influence learning: Environmental factors influence behavior, behavior affects the environment, and person (cognitive) factors influence behavior.
Key components of the SCT related to individual behavior change include:
Self-efficacy: The belief that an individual has control over and is able to execute a behavior.
Behavioral capability: Understanding and having the skill to perform a behavior.
Expectations: Determining the outcomes of behavior change.
Expectancies: Assigning a value to the outcomes of behavior change.
Self-control: Regulating and monitoring individual behavior.
Observational learning: Watching and observing outcomes of others performing or modeling the desired behavior.
Reinforcements: Promoting incentives and rewards that encourage behavior change.
Consider how Bandura's model might work in the case of the achievement behavior of a high school student we will call Sondra:
• Cognition influences behavior: Sondra develops cognitive strategies to think more deeply and logically about how to solve problems. The cognitive strategies improve her achievement behavior.
• behavior influences cognition: Sondra's studying (behavior) has led her to achieve good grades, which in turn produce positive expectancies about her abilities and give her self-confidence (cognition).
• Environment influences behavior: The school Sondra attends recently developed a pilot study-skills program to help students learn how to take notes, manage their time, and take tests more effectively. The study-skills program improves Sondra's achievement behavior.
Behavior influences environment: The study-skills program is successful in improving the achievement behavior of many students in Sondra's class. The students' improved achievement behavior stimulates the school to expand the program so that all students in the high school participate in it.
• Cognition influences environment: The expectations and planning of the school's principal and teachers made the study-skills program possible in the first place.
• Environment influences cognition: The school establishes a resource center where students and parents can go to check out books and materials on improving study skills. The resource center also makes study-skills tutoring services available to students. Sondra and her parents take advantage of the center's resources and tutoring. These resources and services improve Sondra's thinking skills.
Observational learning:
Method of learning that consists of observing and modeling another individual’s behavior, attitudes, or emotional expressions. Although it is commonly believed that the observer will copy the model, American psychologist Albert Bandura stressed that individuals may simply learn from the behavior rather than imitate it. Observational learning is a major component of Bandura’s social learning theory. He also emphasized that four conditions were necessary in any form of observing and modeling behavior: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.
1. Attention: Before students can produce a model’s actions, they must attend to what the model is doing or saying. Attention to the model is influenced by a host of characteristics.
2. Retention: The second requirement of observational learning is being able to remember the behavior that was witnessed (To reproduce a model’s actions, students must code the information and keep it in memory).
If the human or animal does not remember the behavior, there is a less than probable chance that they will imitate it.
3. Reproduction: This requisite of behavior concerns the physical and mental ability of the individual to copy the behavior he or she observed.
For example a young child may observe a college basketball player dunk a ball. Later, when the child has a basketball, he or she may attempt to dunk a ball just like the college player. However, the young child is not nearly as physically developed as the older college player and, no matter how many times he or she tries, will not be able to reach the basket to dunk the ball. An older child or an adult might be able to dunk the ball but likely only after quite a bit of practice.
4. Motivation The most important aspect of observational learning involves motivation. If the human or animal does not have a reason for imitating the behavior, then no amount of attention, retention, or reproduction will overcome the lack of motivation.
Bandura identified several motivating factors for imitation.
These include knowing that the model was previously reinforced for the behavior and being offered an incentive to perform.
-Bandura argues that reinforcement is not always necessary for observational
learning to take place. But if the child does not reproduce the desired behaviors, four types of reinforcement can help do the trick:
(1) Reward the model.
(2) Reward the child.
(3) Instruct the child to make self-reinforcing statements such as, “Good, I did
it!” or, “Okay, I’ve done a good job of getting most of this right; now if I keep trying I will get the rest”; .
(4) Show how the behavior leads to reinforcing outcomes.
Classic Bobo Doll Study:
An experiment by Bandura (1965) illustrates how observational learning can occur even by watching a model who is not reinforced or punished. The experiment also illustrates a distinction between learning and performance.
Equal numbers of children were randomly assigned to watch one of three films in which a person (the model) beat up an adult-size plastic toy called a Bobo doll.
In the first film: the aggressor was rewarded with candy, soft drinks, and praise for aggressive behavior.
In the second film: the aggressor was criticized and spanked for the aggressive behavior.
In the third film: there were no consequences for the aggressor's behavior.
Subsequently, each child was left alone in a room filled with toys, including a Bobo doll. The child's behavior was observed through a one-way mirror. Children who watched the films in which the aggressor's behavior cither was reinforced or went unpunished imitated the aggressor's behavior more than did the children who saw the aggressor be punished. As you might expect, boys were more aggressive than girls.
However, an important point in this study is that observational learning occurred just as extensively when modeled aggressive behavior was not reinforced as when it was reinforced.
A second important point in this study focuses on the distinction between learning and performance. lust because students don't perform a response doesn't mean they didn't learn it. In Bandura's study, when children were given an incentive (with slickers or fruit juice) to imitate the model, differences in the children's imitative behavior in the three conditions were eliminated. Bandura believes that when a child observes behavior but makes no observable response, the child may still have acquired the modeled response in cognitive form.
Strategies for Effectively Using Observational Learning
1-Think about what type of model you will present to students.
Every day, hour after hour, students will watch and listen to what you say and do. Just by being around you, students will absorb a great deal of information. They will pick up your good or bad habits, your expectations for their high or low achievement, your enthusiastic or bored attitude, your controlled or uncontrolled manner of dealing with stress, your learning style, your gender attitudes, and many other aspects of your behavior. A good strategy, then, is that you behave as you want your students to behave.
2. Demonstrate and teach new behaviors.
Demonstrating means that you, the teacher, are a model for your students’ observational learning. Demonstrating how to do something, from solving a math problem, reading, writing, thinking, to controlling anger or performing physical skills, is a common task for teachers. For example, a teacher might model how to diagram a sentence, develop a strategy for solving algebraic equations, or shoot a basketball. When demonstrating how to do something, you need to call students’ attention to the relevant details of the learning situation. Your demonstrations also should be clear and follow a logical sequence.
3. Think about ways to use peers as effective models.
The teacher is not the only model in the classroom. Children can also pick up their peers’ good and bad habits, high or low achievement orientations, and so on, through observational learning. Remember that students are often motivated to imitate high-status models. Older peers usually have higher status than same-age peers.
Thus, a good strategy is to have older peers from a higher grade model how to engage in the behaviors you want your students to perform. As children develop, peers increase in importance and therefore their influence increases as well. Older children and adolescents are much more likely to look to their peers as models. For students with low abilities or who are not performing well, another low-achieving student who struggles but puts considerable effort into learning and ultimately performs the behaviors can be a good model.
4. Think about ways that mentors can be used as models.
Students and teachers benefit from having a mentor someone they look up to and respect, someone who serves as a competent model, someone who is willing to work with them and help them achieve their goals. Just spending a few hours a week with a mentor can make a difference in a student’s life, especially if the student’s parents have not been good role models. As a teacher, a potential mentor for you is a more experienced teacher, possibly someone who teaches down the hall and has had a number of years of experience in dealing with some of the same problems and issues you will have to cope with.
5. Evaluate which classroom guests will provide good
models for students.
To change the pace of classroom life for you and your students, invite guests who have something meaningful to talk about or demonstrate. When you need to have such skills demonstrated to your students, spend some time locating competent models in the community. Invite them to come to your classroom to demonstrate and discuss their skills. If this can’t be arranged, set up field trips in which you take students to see them where they are working or performing.
6. Consider the models children observe on television,
videos, and computers.
Students observe models when they watch television programs, videos, films, or computer screens in your classroom. The principles of observational learning we described earlier apply to these media. For example, the extent to which the students perceive the media models as high or low in status, intriguing or boring, and so on will influence the extent of their observational learning.
Cognitive behavior approaches and self-regulation:
Introduction
Operant conditioning spawned applications and other real-world settings, and the interest in cognitive behavior approaches has also produced such applications. In the fifth century , the Chinese philosopher Confucius said, “If you give a man a fish, you feed him for a day. If you teach a man to fish, you feed him for a lifetime.” As you read about the cognitive behavior approaches and self-regulation, you will discover that they reflect Confucius’ simple expression.
1-Cognitive Behavior Approaches:
-In the cognitive behavior approaches, the emphasis is on getting students to monitor, manage, and regulate their own behavior rather than letting it be controlled by external factors. this has been called cognitive behavior modification.
-Cognitive behavior approaches stem from both cognitive psychology, with its
emphasis on the effects of thoughts on behavior, and behaviorism, with its emphasis on techniques for changing behavior.
cognitive behavior approaches try to change students’ misconceptions, strengthen their coping skills, increase their self-control, and encourage constructive self-reflection.
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